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Mysticism
is called tasawwuf - and a practitioner Sufi (Lings; also suggests safi=
pure)
Sufism
is the name given to Islamic mysticism, a word based on the Arabic word Suf, meaning
undyed wool, because these mystics were accustomed to wearing rough woolen
clothes as a mark of their piety and unworldliness. We could regard the woolen garment of
the Sufi as a badge or uniform used as a sign of protest against the
immense luxury and wealth that the upper classes came to possess as a
result of the dramatic conquests in the Near East and Persia. We could consider the wearing of coarse
wool also as a mark of their protest against what the Sufis felt to be the
political and moral deterioration of the Islamic umma.
You
will often find Sufis being referred to in Western literature as ascetics,
which is fine, as long as you realize that we are not talking about monks
and monasticism. As one scholar has
described it, “If one were to seek a parallel with Christian movements, one
might say that, on the whole, the Sufis were more like friars than
monks.” That is to say their vision
of God compelled them in the direction of public preaching and sermonizing
rather than of monastic seclusion.
Their experience of God was, for them, something to be shared with
the rest of their community, even though they realized that not everyone
could follow them along the Sufi path.
It was therefore more of an activist involvement with society, rather
than a withdrawal from it; even though private reflection and contemplation
was a big part of their activities.
As
regards the Sufi movement itself, one might fruitfully compare certain
aspects of the mood of the movement with the Romantic mood of early
19th-century Europe. Sufism, like
Romanticism, represented a revolt against the formalism and intellectual
dogmatism that seemed to them to dominate the lives of fellow religionists. Ritualism and reason were no longer
adequate as expressions of the totality of religious experience. Most Sufis would claim that they have
transcended intellectual knowledge itself (‘ilm) and to have attained a
very special type of knowledge which they call gnosis (ma‘rifa), or spiritual
and even experiential knowledge.
What is the site, the locus, the place of this special, immediate,
and experiential knowledge? (Lings -
p. 48/132 - “the heart is the synonym of the intellect.” What is the term that distinguishes
“heart-knowledge from mind-knowledge?"
Dhawq p. 52/134- Lings) When we read the excerpt from al-Ghazali’s
autobiography, we sense this rejection on his part of the intellectual and
academic dogmatism current in his day.
One
early and very famous example of a Sufi mystic is Rabi‘a al-Adawiya, from
the 2nd/8th century, a contemporary of Hasan al-Basri, another important
mystical and scholarly figure. An
excerpt from a biography of hers is included in your readings.
At
first, as you might imagine, the orthodox religious scholars tended to look
rather suspiciously upon Sufism. If
you have taken the core course in the humanities, you’ve also heard of
another early Sufi, al-Hallaj, who was put to death in 309/922 for uttering
the famous or infamous statement, “I am the Truth.” In Arabic this utterance is “Ana al-Haqq”
which his enemies understood to mean literally that he was claiming to be
God. A main part of Sufi thought
emphasizes the mystic closeness between the Sufi and His Creator, so much
so that the Sufi can claim to have extinguished his human self (fana’) in
the Divine Being. This is of course,
not to be taken literally; what it implies is that a Sufi becomes so
immersed in the remembrance of God that he or she tends to forget the
divide between this world and the next.
In Arabic, this remembrance of God is called dhikr.
Dzikir
as a Sufi technical term refers also
to the frequent mention and chanting of God’s names; sometimes to
deliberately induce trances. We will
be watching a video which will have clippings from a Sufi dhikr session and
you can watch some of these activities.
Quite frequently, there will also be music accompanying the chanting
of the Sufis; sometimes these mystics would dance to the music while
enthralled in trances. So you can
see why the more conventional religious scholars were actually quite
horrified by what went on at these mystical gatherings.
The
other name you must remember for all time is al-Rumi, full name Jalal
al-Din al-Rumi who died in Konya, Turkey, in 1273. Al-Rumi is particularly celebrated for
his exquisite poetry, most of which was written in Persian. His works have been translated into many
different languages of the world, and I remember reading somewhere that
Rumi is one of the best-selling poets in English today. Rumi was also the founder of a Sufi order
known as the Mevlana order; in English they are called the Whirling
Dervishes; dervish is a Persian word meaning a mystic. They are called the Whirling Dervishes
because in their dhikr sessions, dressed in their somber white clothes,
they often twirl around while chanting pious phrases. Included here is footage of a dervish
ritual called Sema, which was inspired in part by al-Rumi. Anyone ever seen a performance?
http://ocw.nd.edu/arabic-and-middle-east-studies/islamic-societies-of-the-middle-east-and-north-africa-religion-history-and-culture/lectures/lecture-8
SUFISM
INTRODUCTION
The
Sufis are not an ethnic or religious group, but a mystical movement that is
found all over the Islamic world and that still has a deep influence on the
varied populations of the Middle East.
Sufism
grew historically as a reaction against the rigid legalism of the orthodox
religious leadership and as a counterweight to the growing worldliness of
the expanding Muslim empire.
One
source of Sufism is to be found in the twofold presentation of God in the
Qur'an: on the one hand he is described as the almighty creator, lord and
judge, and on the other hand he is seen as abiding in the believer's heart
and nearer to man than his own jugular vein.
Sufism
searches for a direct mystical knowledge of God and of his Love. Its goal
was to progress beyond mere intellectual knowledge to a mystical
(existential) experience that submerged limited man in the infinity of God.
It used Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Hellenistic, Zoroastrian and Hindu
traditions that were brought into Islam by converts from the many conquered
populations. The name Sufi is derived from the Arabic word Suf which means
wool. Early Sufis wore simple coarse woollen garments similar to those of
Christian monks.
Sufism
believed that the Qur'an and Hadith have secret, esoteric, meaning and
symbolism (Batin). In opposition to the literal method of interpretation
(Tafsir), Sufism used an allegorical method (Ta'wil) which looked for the
hidden meaning and symbols in the holy texts.
Sufism
had an important part in the formation of Muslim societies as it educated
the masses and met their felt needs, giving spiritual meaning to their
lives and channeling their emotions. Sufis were also great missionaries who
converted new regions to Islam.
Its
cultural contribution was a rich poetry in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Urdu,
Sindi, Pashto and Punjabi, which spread its mystical ideas all over the
Muslim world and enriched local literature and identity.
Several
techniques were developed to achieve the goal of a blissful union with
Ultimate Reality. They were known as Dhikr (remembrance, mention of God)
and Sama' (hearing). In the Dhikr Sufis would recite the many names of God
and sing hymns of praise. Special forms of breathing were supposed to aid
concentration and help them attain to an ecstatic state in which they
actually felt they had reached union with God. During the Sama', poetry,
music and dance were used as an aid to reaching the ecstatic state.
These
informal groups later crystalized into Sufi brotherhoods gathered around
famous leaders. In some countries even today most Muslims belong to one
order or another. Around the Muslim world there are hundreds of orders and
they are an important religious and political force.
Sufism
is found amongst both Sunnis and Shi'a, being a movement within orthodox
Islam. However it has many links with Isma'ilism and other extreme Shi'a
sects (Ghulat) as it developed in similar times and circumstances.
Sufism
developed in the 8th and 9th centuries in three major centres: 1. The
cities of Basra, Kufa and Baghdad in Iraq. 2. The city of Balkh in the
Khorasan district of Persia. 3. Egypt.
Muhammad
is regarded as the first Sufi master who passed his esoteric teachings
orally to his successors who also received his special grace (barakah). An
unbroken chain of transmission of divine authority is supposed to exist
from Muhammad to his successor 'Ali and from him down to generations of
Sufi masters (Sheikhs, Pirs). Each order has its own Silsilah (chain) that
links it with Muhammad and 'Ali.
HISTORY
1.
FIRST STAGE - ASCETICISM
Under
the Umayads (661-749) there was a growing tendency to compare the wealth
and luxury of the ruling class with the simple lifestyle of the first
Caliphs. Devout believers were shocked by the worldliness and opulence of
court life and they reacted with a growing concern for reality in their own
personal relationship with God. Outward observance of the Shari'a laws
could not satisfy their growing spiritual hunger, and they started to
imitate Christian hermits who had discovered asceticism and poverty as a
way to develop a close relationship with God.
The
first Sufis were ascetics who meditated on the Day of Judgement. They were
called "those who always weep" and "those who see this world
as a hut of sorrows." They kept the external rules of Shari'a, but at
the same time developed their own mystical ideas and techniques.
"Little food, little talk, little sleep," was a popular proverb
amongst them. Mortification of the flesh, self denial, poverty and
abstinence were seen as the means of drawing near to God, and this included
fasting and long nights of prayer.
SOME
EARLY SUFIS
Hasan
of Basrah (d.728) was one of the first Sufi ascetics. He exhorted his
followers against attachment to this evil world and encouraged them to
reject it and to follow a path of poverty and abstinence.
Ibrahim
b. Adham (d. 777) of Balkh in Khorasan taught his disciples the importance
of meditation and of silence in worship.
Shaqiq
of Balkh (d.810) taught that only a rigid system of self-discipline could
lead to absolute trust in God (tawakkul) and to the mystical state (hal).
Al-Muhasibi
(d.837 in Baghdad) taught that self-discipline and self-examination were
the needed preparation for fellowship and union with God.
Dhu
an-Nun of Egypt (d.859) taught that Ma'rifah (inner knowledge,
enlightenment, Gnosis) was necessary to attain real union with God.
Abu
Yazid al-Bistami (d. 874) taught that union with God is achieved through
the annihilation of self (Fana'). This is done by a total stripping away of
a person's attributes and personality and by rigorous mortification of the
flesh. He was the first "intoxicated" Sufi who in his ecstatic
state felt that God had replaced his own ego and now dwelt in his soul.
This caused him to exclaim: "Glory to me! How great is my
majesty!"
Junaid
of Baghdad (d.910), stressed the importance of wisdom and sobriety in
achieving both fana' (dying to self, extinction of self) and baqa' (abiding
in God).
The
first great Sufi martyr was Hallaj who was crucified in 922 in Baghdad for
blasphemy. His offence was the statement "I am the Truth" which
signified that he had attained union with God who now dwelt in his body
instead of his own self. He saw Jesus as his great example of a holy man in
whom God was incarnate.
2.
SECOND STAGE - MYSTICISM OF LOVE
A
woman from Basrah in Iraq, Rabi'a al-Adawiya (d.801) introduced the theme
of Divine Love into Sufism. She yearned to love God only for Himself, not
for hope of any reward (paradise) nor out of fear of judgement (hell).
Following her death the love theme became a dominant feature of Sufism. It
expressed the Sufi's yearning for the development of a love relationship
with God that would lead to an intimate experience of God and finally to a
total union with God.
The
love theme found its main expression in Sufi poetry in which the relations
between God the Divine Lover and the man searching for his love were
symbolically described. Early Sufi poems in Arabic express the soul's deep yearning
for union with the beloved. Persian poetry often compared the soul's love
relationship with God to that between a man and a beautiful youth. In
Indian poetry the loving wife yearning for her husband symbolised the
soul's yearning for God. Later poets developed the long mystical poems
called Mathnawis ( Masnawis) which expressed in symbolical verse the
manifold emotions of love to God and of unity with him.
Persia
had the greatest flourishing of Sufi poetry, and most of its classical
poetry has a Sufi content. One example is the Mathnawi "Mantiq
al-Tair" (speech of the birds) by Farid al-Din 'Attar, an allegory
which portrays the mystic on his pilgrimage from asceticism through
illumination to union with God.
Jalal
ad-Din Rumi (1207-1273), named "Mawlana" - our Lord or Teacher -
was the greatest Persian mystical poet. His famous Mathnawi of 26,000
rhythmic couplets is a real encyclopaedia of Sufi allegorical and mystical
thought and experience. Persian Sufis regard it as next to the Qur'an in
holiness. Rumi also founded the Mawlawi (Mevlevi) order of whirling
dervishes.
Sufi
poetry uses the symbols of wine (God's intoxicating love), the wine cup
(the Sufi's heart) and the cup bearer (the spiritual guide). The wine house
is the religion of love and it is compared to the religion of law
symbolised by the mosque. Learning the many Sufi symbols and their meaning
is essential to an understanding of this kind of poetry.
3.
THIRD STAGE - SUFI APOLOGETICS
Early
Sufi masters gathered informal circles of disciples and transmitted their
teachings orally. At first, the orthodox religious authorities were very
suspicious of the Sufis and accused them of heresy and blasphemy. This led
some Sufis in the 10th century to defend Sufism by writing handbooks of
their teaching and practice in the hope of proving their orthodoxy.
Al-A'rabi (d.952), Makki (d.996), Sarraj (d. 988), Kalabadhi (d.1000) and
Hujviri (d.1057) were such masters who wrote in defence of Sufism. They
also published histories and biographies of Sufism, trying to prove that it
was based on the practice (Sunnah) of the Prophet and his companions.
Al-Qushairi
(d. 1072) defended Sufism against the accusations of antinomianism
(lawlessness). In addition to writing biographies of Sufi saints he wrote
"Risala", a book in which he defined Sufi doctrines and terms. He
defined the mystical stations (maqamat, a result of the Sufi's own
labours), and states (ahwal, mystical states bestowed by God's grace).
Abu
Hamid al-Ghazali (d.1111), called Hujjat al-Islam - Proof Of Islam, was a
great Muslim thinker who found no satisfaction in his extensive study of
theology and law. Turning to Sufism he found in it the certainty of God he
had yearned for and failed to find in his previous studies. In his book
"The Revival of the Religious Sciences" (Ihya' 'Ulum ad-Din) he
attempted to reconcile Sufism with orthodoxy. It was immensely popular and
finally guaranteed Sufism an official place in orthodox Islam alongside Law
and Theology.
4.
FOURTH STAGE - PHILOSOPHICAL-MYSTICAL SYSTEMS (THEOSOPHY)
Theosophy
is any mystical system of religious philosophy that claims a direct
intuitive insight into God's nature. Theosophical speculations on the
nature of God and man were introduced into Sufism by Sahl al-Tustari
(d.896) and at-Tirmidi (d 898).
The
greatest of all Sufi theosophical writers in Arabic was Ibn al-'Arabi
(d.1240) who was born in Spain. He travelled to Tunis and Mecca and finally
settled in Damascus. In his 500 books he teaches that all existence is but
a manifestation of God, the one ultimate divine reality which is totally
"other", an undifferentiated unity, but in whom the archtypes of
all potential beings exist. This is the "unknown God" from whom
emanates a hierarchy of divine beings (Names, Lords) the lowest of whom is
the Lord of revelation and creation who is also called the First Intellect.
The emanations are the mediating link between the unknowable, transcendent
God and the created world. This teaching was the basis of the Sufi concept
of the Unity of Being (Wahdat al-Wujud). The First Intellect, an emanation
of the God was also called the "idea of Muhammad". He is the
archtype through whom man was made. This emanation is incarnated in a
Perfect Man in every generation - the perfect Sufi. This man most fully manifests
the nature of God and he is the pole (Qutb, axis) around which the cosmos
revolves. Ibn al-'Arabi saw himself as such a "pole" and he
called himself the seal (the most perfect) of the saints.
Another
theosophical system, that of illumination, was developed by Shihab al-Din
Suhrawardi (executed in Aleppo in 1191). He taught that all things exist as
varying degrees of light, beginning with the Absolute Light, the Light of
Lights who is God himself. Light then spreads out from God in ever weaker
degrees (angels), each reflecting the light above it to those beneath it.
The whole world of being is composed of innumerable angels of light
spreading out in geometrical patterns.
Indian
Sufis were influenced by Hindu mysticism and strayed far from Islamic orthodoxy
in their speculations. The Naqshbandi order founded in the 13th century in
Central Asia to preserve true Islam from the ravages of the Mongol
invasions, succeeded in keeping them within orthodoxy.
Ahmad
Sirhindi (d.1624) taught that the Unity of Being was a subjective
experience occurring only in the Sufi's mind - not the Hindu concept of
total annihilation of the personal in the infinite.
5.
FIFTH STAGE - THE RISE OF SUFI ORDERS
Sufi
orders began to form in the 12th and 13th centuries centering around a
master founder and stressing companionship (Suhbah, fellowship) as
essential to the Sufi spiritual path.
This
was the time of the terrible Mongol invasions when the 'Abassid Caliphate
in Bagdad was overthrown. Sufism was one of the forces that helped prevent
the downfall of Islam. It helped convert the conquerors and had a
stabilising influence on the community during those troubled times. This
period was actually Sufism's golden age.
In
its first stages Sufism had been the prerogative of a limited spiritual
elite. From the twelfth century onwards it succeeded in involving the
Muslim masses on a large scale in its network of orders. Sufi hospices,
(Zawiyas in Arabic, Khanagas in Iranian, Ribat in the Maghreb and Tekkes in
Turkish) were founded all over the Muslim world from Morocco to Central
Asia. The Sheikh of each order, a successor of the original founder,
presided over the hospice. In this centre he taught his disciples (Murids)
and performed with them the Sufi rituals of Dhikr and Sama'.
There
was an elaborate initiation ritual for the disciple when he was admitted
into full membership (usually after three years). In this ceremony he
received from the Sheikh a special cloak (Khirqa) which symbolised poverty
and devotion to God. Sufis had no rule of celibacy and most were married.
The orders received endowments from sympathetic rulers and rich citizens
and some eventually became fabulously wealthy. Sufi orders had an extensive
missionary outreach into Africa and into Southeast Asia where they are
still very influential.
Each
order developed its own specific set of techniques for its Dhikr and Sama',
used by its members to attain to the ecstatic state. These rituals also had
a social function, helping to unify people from widely varying backgrounds
into a spiritual brotherhood.
The
orders were thus a unifying force in society, drawing members from all
social classes to their Dhikr and Sama' ceremonies as well as to their
joyous celebrations of the anniversaries of the deaths of their founder ('Urs).
They provided the masses with a spiritual and emotional dimension to
religion which the hair splitting legalists could not supply.
The
orders also established trade and craft guilds and provided hospices for
travellers and merchants which were located along the great trade routes
(such as the famous silk road). Between the 13th and the 18th century most
Muslims belonged to some Sufi Tariqah.
SOME
FAMOUS ORDERS
There
are more than two hundred known Sufi orders. Some are local, others
universal. Some are rural and others are urban.
THE
QADIRIYAH - the oldest and most widespread order. It has branches all over
the world loosely tied to its centre at Baghdad. It was founded in Baghdad
by 'Abd al-Qadir Jilani (d.1166), considered to be the greatest saint in
Islam. It later became established in Yemen, Egypt, Sudan, the Maghreb,
Central Asia and India. The Qadiriya stresses piety, humility, moderation
and philanthropy and appeals to all classes of society being strictly
orthodox. It is governed by a descendant of al-Jilani who is also the
keeper of his tomb in Baghdad which is a pilgrimage centre for his
followers from all over the world.
THE JILALIYA -
a Qadiri branch in the Maghreb, worship al-Jilani as a supernatural being,
combining Sufism with pre-Islamic ideas and practices.
THE
NAQSHBANDIYA - was founded in Central Asia in the thirteenth century in an
attempt to defend Islam against the ravages of the Mongol invasions. It
later spread to the Indian subcontinent. The Naqshbandis tried to control
the political rulers so as to ensure that they implemented God's will. They
were politically and culturally active, the great poet Mir Dad (d.1785)
belonged to this order. They were also connected to trade and crafts guilds
and held political power in the 15th century in Central Asia and in Moghul
India. A Naqshbandi branch, the Khaltawiyah, had an important part in
efforts to modernise the Ottoman Empire during the 18th and 19th centuries.
The
Naqshbandiya developed mainly as an urban order with close links to the
orthodox hierarchy. They recite their Dhikr silently, ban music and dance,
and prefer contemplation to ecstasy. Their "middle way" between
extreme asceticism and extreme antinomianism seemed acceptable to the
orthodox hierarchy. They have been involved in underground movements
against Soviet rule in Central Asia and supported the Afghan Mujahedin
against the Russians.
THE MAWLAWIYAH -
this order was founded by Jalal al-Din Rumi (d.1273, called Mawlana), the
greatest Sufi poet who wrote in Persian. Their rituals are aesthetically
sophisticated, and their Sama' is famous for its exquisite combination of
music, poetry and whirling dance (in the West they are called
"Whirling Dervishes") which transports them into the trace like
state.
The
Mawlawiya were especially attractive to the educated elite of the Turkish
Ottoman Empire and were widespread in Anatolia where they had close links
with the authorities.
THE BEKTASHIYA -
a syncretistic order whose ritual and beliefs are a mixture of Shi'ism,
Orthodox Christianity and gnostic cults. By the sixteenth century the
Bektashis were the order of the famous Janissary corps, the elite military
unit of the Ottoman Empire. Their magic-like rituals appealed to the
illiterate masses of Anatolia. Their clergy were celibate, they practiced
ritual confession and communion and had a trinitarian concept of God
similar to that of the 'Alawis.
THE TIJANIYA -
founded by al-Tijani in 1781 in Fez, Morocco, extended the borders of Islam
towards Senegal and Nigeria and founded great kingdoms in West Africa. They
taught submission to the established government and their influence is
still an important factor in these countries where it is associated with
conservative businessmen.
THE DARAQUIYA -
was founded in the early 19th century by Mulay 'Arabi Darqawi (d. 1823) in
Fez in Morocco. It was the driving force behind the Jihad movement which
achieved mass conversions to Islam in the mixed Berber-Arab-Negro lands of
the Sahel. It is influential today in Mali, Niger and Chad and still
widespread in Morocco.
THE KHALWATIYA -
was founded in northwest Persia in the 13th century and spread to the
Caucasus and to Turkey. It was closely associated with the Ottoman Sultans
and had its headquarters in Istanbul. It has also spread to Egypt and
Indonesia.
THE SUHRAWARDIYA -
was started in Iraq by al-Suhrawardi (d.1234) who stressed serious training
and teaching. They have many adherents in the Indian subcontinent. They
were very involved politically in Iraq and Iran during the Mongol threat, seeking
to ensure the survival of Islam.
THE RIFA'IYA -
was founded in the marshlands of southern Iraq by al-Rifa'i (d.1187). They
stress poverty, abstinence and mortification of the flesh, and are also
known as the "Howling Dervishes" because of their loud recitation
of the Dhikr. They focus on dramatic ritual and bizarre feats such as fire
eating, piercing themselves with iron skewers and biting heads off live
snakes.
THE SHADILIYA -
was started by al-Shadili (d.1258) in Tunis. It flourished especially in
Egypt under ibn-'Ata Allah (d.1309) but also spread to North Africa, Arabia
and Syria. It is the strongest order in the Maghreb where it was organised
by al-Jazuli (d. 1465) and has sub-orders under other names. The Shadiliya
stress the intellectual basis of Sufism and allow their members to remain
involved in the secular world. They are not allowed to beg and are always
neatly dressed. They appealed mainly to the middle class in Egypt and are
still active there. It is said that the Shadiliya were the first to
discover the value of coffee as a means of staying awake during nights of
prayer!
THE CHISHTIYA -
were founded by Mu'in al-Din Chishti in Ajmer, India. His teaching was
simple and the order is known for its fervour and hospitality. They helped
in the islamisation of the Indian subcontinent.
THE SANUSIYA -
are a military brotherhood started by al-Sanusi (d.1837) in Libya with
political and military as well as religious aims. They fought against the
colonising Italians and the former King of Libya was head of the order.
THE NI'MATULAHIYA -
developed first in Persia and then in India as a specifically Isma'ili
oriented Sufi order.
THE AHMADIYA -
is the leading order in Egypt with its centre at Tanta. It was founded by
Ahmad al-Badawi (d. 1276).
The
orders helped spread Islam and their Sufi concepts in frontier lands such
as India, Central and Southeast Asia, Sudan, Morocco and sub-Saharan
Africa.
6.
SIXTH STAGE - THE DECLINE AND REVIVAL OF SUFISM
The
Sufi orders grew steadily in wealth and in political influence, but their
spirituality gradually declined as they concentrated on Saint worship,
miracle working, magic and superstition. The external religious practices
were neglected, morals declined and learning was despised.
In
many areas Sufi orders succeeded in ruling the ignorant masses through a
well organised and power hungry hierarchy. Their local saints were revered
by the populace and worshipped after their death as mediators and
intercessors. Pilgrim's flocked to the Saint's tombs, willing to pay for a
share in the Sheikh's baraka. The orders became rich and powerful, and both
politicians and theologians feared to oppose them and preferred to share in
the profits.
Some
sincere mystics still rose above the general decline. In Egypt, al-Shar'ani
(d.1565) lived at the time of the Ottoman conquest and was a serious and
comprehensive scholar.
In
Iran Sadr al-Din Shirazi (d.1640), also known as Mulla Sadra, was a great
thinker who continued to develop the theology of illumination founded by
Suhrawardi and integrated it with Ibn-'Arabis Unity of Being. His impact is
still felt on theologians and philosophers in Iran today.
In
India in the 18th century Shah Wali-Allah of Delhi tried to integrate the
various schools of Sufi thought, whilst Mir Dard contributed much to the
formation of Urdu poetry.
In
Iran the Safavid order gained political power for two centuries
(1499-1720). The Sheikhs of this order claimed descent from 'Ali and they
were favourably treated by both the Mongol and the Timurid dynasties. Based
in Ardabil in Azerbaijan the order became a local power in the 15th century
as it alternatively allied itself with and fought against the rulers of the
Turkmen tribal confederations (Ak-Koyunlu, the White Sheep and Kara-
Koyunlu, the Black Sheep).
The
Turkmen Safavids of Anatolia and Azerbaijan were called Kizilbash
(Redheads) from the red headgear they wore. In 1501 the Safavid Sheikh
Ismail I defeated the Ak-Koyunlu and took the old Mongolian capital of
Tabriz where he proclaimed himself as Shah. Later he instituted Twelver
Shi'ism as the state religion of Persia and imposed it by force on the
population. Many Sunni 'Ulama' and Sheikhs of other Sufi orders were
executed.
The
Sunni Ottomans felt threatened by Shi'a Persia, and in the ensuing centuries
of warfare between these two powers they evolved an aggressive Sunnism
within their own Empire. The Sultan Selim I massacred all the Shi'ites that
he could lay his hands on, and until modern times the Kizilbash of Anatolia
and other Shi'a groups collectively called "Alevis" by the
Ottomans were forced to exist as an underground movement. Alevis still
number some 8 million people in modern Turkey but they are officially
ignored as non-existent by the authorities.
In
Arabia the Wahabi puritan revival was extremely anti-Sufi, seeing their
practices and doctrines as later pagan additions to pure Islam.
Colonialism,
nationalism and secularisation had a negative impact on Sufism in the 19th
and 20th centuries. The modern revival of Islamic learning was accompanied
by a violent reaction against the superstitions of Sufism. It was accused
as being the cause of the Islamic world's backwardness compared to the
West. The two great Muslim reformers of the 19th century, Jamal al-Din
al-Afghani and Muhammad 'Abduh, both campaigned successfully against Sufi
orders helping to diminish their influence.
In
Turkey, Kemal Ataturk abolished the Sufi orders in 1925 and confiscated
their lands and property. He saw them as corrupt and backward forces that
hindered the modernisation of Turkish society. In other countries too
post-colonial independent central governments were often suspicious of the
orders. They were suspected of being cells of political unrest and
revolution who held the loyalty of the masses by their superstitions,
religious emotionalism and outmoded power structures.
Despite
religious and political attempts to eliminate them, the Sufi orders
continued to exist, often underground. With the resurgence of fundamental
Islam in the second half of the 20th century came also a Sufi revival.
Sufism still flourishes in North Africa, Egypt, Sudan, Iran, Central Asia,
Pakistan, India and Indonesia. In Soviet Central Asia their underground
networks helped Islam survive until the reforms of the late eighties. The
disintegration of the Soviet Union has allowed them to return to full
public activity in the new republics.
Sufism
today is still a formidable force in the Islamic world. It still touches
and transforms the lives of Muslim people, giving them meaning and emotional
support in a world that is increasingly unstable and full of economic woes,
suffering and confusion.
SUFI
PRACTICE
INITIATION
Initiation
into a Sufi order is seen as a necessary ritual that transmits the
spiritual grace (barakah, spiritual power) of the guide (murshid) to the
disciple (murid). This special grace goes back in an unbroken line to the
Prophet himself. In Sufi thought it is likened to a seed planted in the
initiate's soul, the equivalent of Christian baptism or new birth. At the
initiation ceremony the Master who has experienced union with God and
annihilation of self, in addition to giving the disciple the special
garment also gives the him a secret word or prayer to help him in his
meditation.
Sufis
also believe in Spiritual Guides who reveal themselves to the Sufi in
visions or dreams and help him on his path. Al-Khidr is one well known such
guide who is sometimes identified as the prophet Elijah.
The
initiate has to learn spiritual poverty (faqr) which means emptying the
soul of self in order to make room for God. The illusion of the individual
ego must be erased by humility and love of one's neighbour. This is
attained by a rigid self discipline that removes all obstacles to the
revelation of the Divine Presence.
THE
PATH OR PILGRIMAGE
Sufism
is seen as a spiritual path of self knowledge that leads to a knowledge of
God. God is seen by the "eye of the heart", not by intellectual
knowledge or legalistic customs. The outward form of religion is a mere
shell which hides the kernel inside it. The kernel is the real Truth, the
Sufi's goal on his spiritual path.
The
Sufi path contains many stages (Maqamat) and states (Ahwal). It begins with
repentance when the seeker joins the order and prepares himself for
initiation. The guide (Sheikh, Pir) accepts the seeker as his disciple by
the ritual of initiation when he imparts his grace, gives him strict
ascetic rules to follow and a certain secret word for meditation. The
disciple's path is one of continuous struggle against his lower soul. He passes
through a number of spiritual stations and states clearly defined by Sufi
teaching.
These
are the Sufi stations: 1. detachment from the world (zuhd). 2. patience
(sabr). 3. gratitude (shukr), for whatever God gives. 4. love (hubb). 5.
pleasure (rida) with whatever God desires. Linked to these stations are
specific moods or emotions (ahwal) such as fear and hope, sadness and joy,
yearning and intimacy, granted to the pilgrim by God's grace for a while
with the goal of leading him to on to Ma'rifah (esoteric knowledge,
Gnosis), Mahabbah (Love) and to the ultimate goal which is annihilation of
personality and unity with God.
Beyond
this stage the Sufi then enters the state of Baqa', or perseverance in God.
He returns from his state of intoxication (Sukr) back into the world
completely transformed - reborn.
The
Sufi path has three ways: Makhafah, the way of fear of God leading to
purification. Mahabbah, the way of love leading to sacrifice. Ma'rifah, the
way of intuitive knowledge leading to illumination.
DHIKR
AND SAMA'
Dhikr
and Sama' were based on words attributed to the Prophet: "Whenever men
gather together to invoke Allah, they are surrounded by Angels, the Divine
Favour envelops them, the Divine Glory (as-Sakinah) descends upon them, and
Allah remembers them in His assembly." The hospices became centres
where lay people from the countryside would gather together with the
members of the order to obey the Quran's injunction to remember God often.
This
was done in the celebration of the Dhikr, which involved the communal
rhythmic repetition of a phrase, usually from the Quran, in which one of
the names of God appears. Breath control and body movements were also used
as techniques to aid in achieving concentration and control over senses and
imagination. The rosary with 99 or 33 beads was used since the 8th century
as an aid to counting the many repetitions (it entered Christian Churches
from Sufism via the Crusades). This concentrated meditation can lead to a
mystical trance and enlightenment which transforms man's whole being.
Sama'
was first developed in the mid 9th century in Baghdad. It is another
communal ritual practice, defined as a concert of music, poetry recital,
singing and dance, which leads the participants to a mystical experience
where they seem to hear the music of the heavenly spheres and the voice of
God Himself. It attunes the heart to communion with God and is thought to
remove all veils hiding God from man's inner vision. Drugs were used by
some as an aid to reaching the ecstatic state, coffee by the Shadiliya in
the 14th century.
SUFI
SAINTS AND FOLK ISLAM
Sheikhs
who had reached the highest mystical stage of union with God, were revered
by the masses as saints (Awliya') upon whom God had bestowed miraculous
supernatural powers and grace.
A
cult of living and of dead saints developed around them influenced by pagan
customs. They were seen as miracle workers, healers, and intercessors for
others before God. Their tombs became pilgrimage centres visited by many in
order to partake of the Saint's Baraka (blessing, supernatural power) to
meet their needs for healing and other help. They would make vows and pray
for the saint's intercession on their behalf. Special celebrations which
developed into folk festivals were held on the anniversary of their deaths
('urs). They were seen to be mediators between God and man, God answering
their prayers on behalf of the supplicants.
SUFI
ESOTERIC TERMINOLOGY
Ahadiya - unconditioned
unity.
Ahwal - mystical
states.
'Aql - reason,
Intelligence.
Baqa' - abiding union
with God.
Barakah - transferable
spiritual power of Saint.
Bast - expansive
ecstasy.
Dhawq - taste, personal
mystical experience.
Dervish - Persian for
Sufi, meaning beggar, (faqir).
Diwan - collection of
poems.
Fana' - mystical
annihilation of self, union with God.
Faqir - Sufi disciple,
dervish. (means poor).
Hijab - veil.
Hikmat-il-Ishraq -
doctrine of illumination.
Ikhlas - absolute
sincerity.
Al-Insan al-Kamil - the
perfect man.
Khalwah - spiritual
retreat.
Karamat - Grace, also
miracles of saints.
Khanaqah - Sufi lodge.
Khirqah - patched cloak
of Sufi.
Mahabbah - love.
Mathnawi - long
mystical poem.
Mahfuz - protection of
saints from serious sin.
Malak - angelic force.
Maqamat - stages in
mystical journey.
Ma'rifah - secret
knowledge, gnosis;
Murid - disciple;
Murshid - spiritual
guide;
Nafs - lower soul;
Pir - Spiritual Master
or guide;
Qalb - heart.
Qutb - pole, axis
around which the world revolves, perfected human beings, especially great
Sufi Sheikhs;
Ribat - Sufi hospice,
training centre.
Sahw - path of
sobriety.
Suluk - the spiritual
walk.
Shatahat - ecstatic
utterances.
Sukr - path of
intoxication.
Suhbah - companionship.
Silsilah - chain,
spiritual lineage.
Talib - seeker,
disciple.
Tawakkul - trust in
God.
Tariqah - way, Sufi order.
Uns - mystical
intimacy.
'Urs - festival
celebrating anniversary of Saint's death.
Wahdat al-Wujjud -
unity of being.
Wahidiyah - unity in
plurality.
Wali - friend of God,
saint.
Zawiyah - Sufi hospice.
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